english Grammar, 05

*🌹ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLUB🌹*

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*🔴 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH No-05🔴*

*📚Deffinition*

Direct and indirect speech

Direct and indirect speech can be a source of confusion for English learners. Let's first define the terms, then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how to convert speech from direct to indirect or vice-versa.

You can answer the question What did he say? in two ways:

• by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)
• by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).

Direct Speech

Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation.

Examples

• She says, "What time will you be home?"
• She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "
• "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
• John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

Indirect speech

Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.

She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect speech)

"That" may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

"Say" and "tell"

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.

Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.

"Talk" and "speak"

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.

Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.

*📚Rules*

*📚Use In All Tenses*

*📚Roprted Statement And Commands*

*📚Other Verb Form*

*📚Changing In  Pronounce*

*📚Time and place Reference*

*📚50 examples of direct and indirect speech*

*📚100 examples of direct and indirect speech*

*📚Reported Speech Practice*

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English Grammer 04

GERUND AND INFINITIVE

The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.

Example

I prefer to live in an apartment.

I prefer living in an apartment.

Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:

allow

attempt

begin

bother

cease

continue

deserve

fear*

hate*

intend*

like

love

neglect

omit

permit

prefer*

recommend*

start

Notes:

1. Allow is used in these two patterns:

a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:

Her parents allowed her to go to the party.

b. Allow + gerund:

Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.

2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there is a passive meaning:

Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.

These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).

3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.

Compare:

I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.

I hate looking after elderly relatives!

I love dancing .

I would love to dance with you.

Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning :

Verbs marked with an asterisk * can also be followed by a that-clause .

come

forget *

go on

mean *

regret *

remember *

stop

try

Come:

Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is doing something as they move:

She came running across the field.

Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control:

At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour.

How did you come to be outside the skipped house?

This word has come to mean something quite different.

Forget, regret and remember:

When these verbs are followed by a gerund , the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier:

I remember locking the door ( = I remember now, I locked the door earlier)

He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely at some earlier time in the past.)

Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form:

I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time.

When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive , the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time, or later:

I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.)

Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.)

We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before we tell you this bad news.)

Go on:

Go on + gerund means to continue with an action:

He went on speaking for two hours.

I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted.

Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process:

After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company.

John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of Parliament.

Mean:

Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary:

If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day.

We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel.

Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan:

Did you mean to dial this number?

I mean to finish this job by the end of the week!

Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.

Stop:

Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress:

I stopped working for them because the wages were so low.

Stop tickling me!

Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is used to express a purpose:

I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in order to eat.)

It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answerOption the phone every five minutes.

Try:

Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem.

If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you could try drinking some warm milk.

'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?'

Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or even impossible:

The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table.

We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone.

People have to try to live together in harmony.

The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.

Example

• I prefer to live in an apartment.
• I prefer living in an apartment.

Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:

allow attempt begin bother cease continue

deserve fear* hate* intend* like love

neglect omit permit prefer* recommend* start

Notes:

1. Allow is used in these two patterns:
a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:

• Her parents allowed her to go to the party.

b. Allow + gerund:

• Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.

2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there is a passive meaning:

• Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.
• These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).

3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.

Compare:

• I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.
• I hate looking after elderly relatives!
• I love dancing .
• I would love to dance with you.

Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning :
Verbs marked with an asterisk * can also be followed by a that-clause .

come forget * go on

mean * regret * remember *

stop try

Come:

Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is doing something as they move: She came running across the field. Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control: At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour. How did you come to be outside the skipped house? This word has come to mean something quite different.

Forget, regret and remember:

When these verbs are followed by a gerund , the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier: I remember locking the door ( = I remember now, I locked the door earlier) He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely at some earlier time in the past.) Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form: I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time. When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive , the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time, or later: I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.) Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.) We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before we tell you this bad news.)

Go on:

Go on + gerund means to continue with an action: He went on speaking for two hours. I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted. Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process: After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company. John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of Parliament.

Mean:

Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary: If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day. We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel. Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan: Did you mean to dial this number? I mean to finish this job by the end of the week! Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.

Stop:

Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress: I stopped working for them because the wages were so low. Stop tickling me! Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is used to express a purpose: I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in order to eat.) It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answerOption the phone every five minutes.

Try:

Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem. If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you could try drinking some warm milk. 'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?' Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or even impossible: The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table. We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone. People have to try to live tog 🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿 The Gerund and the Present Participle: 'ING' Form The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund. The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the word does in the sentence. The present participle This is most commonly used: as part of the continuous form of a verb, he is painting ; she has been waiting after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle , She sat looking at the sea after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle , We saw him swimming as an adjective, e.g. amazing , worrying , exciting , boring The gerund This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used: as the subject of the sentence: Eating people is skipped. after prepositions: Can you sneeze without opening your mouth? She is good at painting after certain verbs, e.g. like , hate , admit , imagine in compound nouns, e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird- watching , train- spotting 🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗 THE GERUND This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common to call both forms 'the -ing form' . However it is useful to understand the difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used: as the subject of the sentence: Eating people is skipped. Hunting tigers is dangerous. Flying makes me nervous. as the complement of the verb 'to be' One of his duties is attending meetings. The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund. One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed. after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition: Can you sneeze without opening your mouth? She is good at painting . They're keen on windsurfing . She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road. We arrived in Madrid after driving all night. My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary. This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no point in..: There's no point in waiting . In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time. after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb Example to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on: I look forward to hearing from you soon. ( at the end of a letter) When are you going to give up smoking ? She always puts off goi ng to the dentist. He kept on asking for money. NOTE There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive : - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund: We are looking forward to seeing you. I am used to waiting for buses. She didn't really take to studying English. It is possible to check whether 'to? is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive : if you can put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a gerund: I am accustomed to it (the cold). I am accustomed to being cold. in compound nouns Example a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird- watching , train- spotting It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous verb. Example the pool is not swimming, it is a pool for swimming in . after the expressions: can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the adjective worth: She couldn't help falling in love with him. I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams. It's no use/good trying to escape. It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train. ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following ways: as part of the continuous form of a verb Example I am working he was singing they have been walking after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle Example She went shopping He lay looking up at the clouds She came running towards me This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go' , as in these common expressions : to go shopping to go ski-ing to go fishing to go surfing to go walking to go swimming to go running to go dancing after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle Example I heard someone singing . He saw his friend walking along the road. I can smell something burning ! NOTE : There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to an incomplete action, or part of an action. Compare: I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on afterwards) I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance ) as an adjective Example amazing, worrying, exciting, boring. It was an amazing film. It's a bit worrying when the police stop you Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm. Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph. He was trapped inside the burning house. Many of his paintings depict the setting sun. with the verbs spend and waste , in the pattern: verb + time/money expression + present participle Example My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work. Don't waste time playing computer games! They've spent the whole day shopping . with the verbs catch and find , in the pattern: verb + object + present participle: With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger: If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble! Don't let him catch you reading his letters. This is not the case with find , which is unemotional: We found some money lying on the ground. They found their mother sitting in the garden. to replace a sentence or part of a sentence: When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present participle to describe one of them: They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went. They went laughing out into the snow. He whistled to himself. He walked down the road. Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a present participle: He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house. She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because , and it explains the cause or reason for an action: Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge. (= because he felt hungry...) Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes. Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat. 📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌 VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND The gerund is used after certain verbs. Example miss : I miss living in England. The most important of these verbs are shown below. Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause Example VERB GERUND She admitted... breaking the window THAT-CLAUSE She admitted... that she had broken the window. Note: Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund does not refer to the subject. Compare : I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...) I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...) Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and the gerund (both common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said): Excuse me interrupting . Excuse me for interrupting . Excuse my interrupting . Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL . It is important not to confuse these patterns: suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund: He suggests going to Glastonbury He suggested going to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted): He suggests that I should go to New York He suggested that I should go to New York He suggested/suggests I should go to New York He suggested/suggests I go to New York He suggested I went to New York. suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive: He suggested where to go. Propose is followed by the gerund when it means ' suggest': John proposed going to the debate but by the infinitive when it means 'intend': The Government proposes bringing in new laws .. Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning. Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think' , in the expression 'I dread to think': I dread to think what she'll do next. Prevent is followed EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund: You can't prevent my leaving . OR by an object + from + gerund: You can't prevent me from leaving . Example Normally, a girl wouldn't think of marrying a man she did not love. Most people don't like receiving bad news. We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes. If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night. I can't imagine living in that big house. If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London. She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge. They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved. 🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸 All the sophisticated things get updated every day.  Here is the only study that can be shared.  (Subject-based, current phenomenon,  Provide useful information for competitive exams  ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐  What's Up Groups ಹೊಸಬೆಳಕು 1 1 to 7th ಕ್ಲಾಸ್ ಸ್ಟಡಿ ಗ್ರೂಪ್  ಶಿಕ್ಷಣವೇ ಶಕ್ತಿ ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLUB 8th to 10th class study groups PUC ಸ್ಟಡಿ ಗ್ರೂಪ್ಸ್

English grammar 3

Conditionals

Conditionals are structures in English that establish what will happen if a certain event takes place or action is performed, i.e. if a certain condition is true, a certain result occurs. There are four types of commonly used conditionals in English that are differentiated on the basis of the degree of possibility implied by each conditional: the first conditional, the second conditional, the third conditional and the zero conditional.

First Conditional

This conditional is used to talk about future events that might happen. It uses the present tense to discuss the possible future event.

Example:

• If it rains, we will have to cancel the picnic.
• If you come with me, I will make it worth your while.
• If I go abroad, I will get something back for you.
• If you want until 1pm, you can go back with him.
• If you visit Paris, you must see the Eiffel Tower.

Second Conditional

This conditional is used to talk about unreal possibility or impossible events; they establish the course of action that would follow, were something to happen hypothetically.

Example:

• If I had a million dollars, I would buy a penthouse on Park Avenue.
• I could stop working if I won the lottery.
• If I were well-versed in the subject, I would help you with your assignment.
• If I were you, I would ask her to marry me.
• What would you do if it were to rain later?

Third Conditional

This conditionals talks about the past, unlike the first and second which discuss events in the real or unreal future. These conditions, too, are therefore impossible, because they have either already occurred or might have occurred but won't anymore.

Example:

• If I had studied a little more in college, life would have been easier.
• If we had gotten to the airport on time, we would have caught our flight.
• I could have asked him about the matter if he had shown up.

Sometimes the 'if' clause is merely implied, as in:

Example:

• I would have done it. (...if you had asked me to)
• I wouldn't have allowed it. (...if it had been tried with me)

Zero Conditional

The zero conditional discusses an absolute certainty; the result of the condition is always true. The most common types of zero conditionals are scientific facts, like If you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice. Zero conditionals, therefore, do not deal with the future or the past; they simply deal with facts. The 'if' in these conditionals can be replaced with 'when': When you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.

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Could

'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite.

Example

• Could you help me, please?
• Could you lend me some money?
• Could I have a lift?
• Could I bother you for a moment?

If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.

Example

• Of course I can.
• I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now.
• I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail.
• I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.

Example

• It could rain later. Take an umbrella.
• He could be there by now.
• Could he be any happier?
• It could be Steven's.

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Degree Of Comparison

Adjectives change in form to show comparison,they are called Degree Of Comparison.

Type of Degree Of Comparison

POSITIVE DEGREE
COMPARATIVE DEGREE
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

John is a tall boy.
John is taller than Ancy.
John is tallest of them all.

In the first sentence it explains only that, John is a tall boy. Here John is not compared with any others. In such cases, when adjective is used with out any comparison to other nouns we call it as POSITIVE DEGREE.


In the second sentence the adjective is used for comparison between two people, such cases when adjective is used for comaprison of two person,thing we call it as COMPARATIVE DEGREE.

In Comparative Degree use 'than' after the adjectives.
taller than
greater than

In third sentence the comparison is between more than two people,such case we say it as SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.

NOTE :

If ' er ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Comaparative degree is formed and when ' est ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Superlative degree is formed.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
clever long high great sweet young tall	cleverer longer higher greater sweeter younger taller	cleverest longest highest greatest sweetest youngest tallest

If positive ends in 'e' add 'r' and 'st' to form comparative and superlative.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
large wise white brave pure fine able	larger wiser whiter braver purer finer abler	largest wisest whitest bravest purest finest ablest

We can add more and most before adjective to form comparative and superlative.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
beautiful useful famous difficult important honest powerful	more beautiful more useful more famous more difficult more important more honest more powerful	most beautiful most useful most famous most difficult most important most honest most powerful

If positive ends in 'y' add 'er' and 'est' to form comparative and superlative after changing 'y' to 'i'.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
lovely wealthy holy easy happy heavy healthy	lovelier wealthier holier easier happier heavier healthier	loveliest wealthiest holiest easiest happiest heaviest healthiest

For some adjectives that ends mainly with 'd, g, t, m, n' to form comparative and superlative, add the last letter twice and then add 'er' and 'est'.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
red sad big hot fat dim thin	redder sadder bigger hotter fatter dimmer thinner	reddest saddest biggest hottest fattest dimmest thinnest

For some adjectives(positive) form comparative and superlative that are entirely different from the positive form '.

Positive	Comparative	superlative
late good bad much near little many	later, latter better worse more nearer less, lesser more	latest, last best worst most nearest, next least most

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DISTRIBUTIVES

These words can be used in the following ways:

ALL +

1 2 3 4a 4b

- the my, your, etc. this, that these, those

Uncountable noun or Countable noun in the plural Uncountable noun Countable noun in the plural

Example :

1.	All cheese contains protein All children need affection
2.	All the people in the room were silent. Have you eaten all the bread ?
3.	I've invited all my friends to the party. I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a.	Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b.	Look at all those balloons!

BOTH +

1 2 3 4

- the my, your, etc. these, those

Countable noun in the plural

Example :

1.	Both children were born in Italy.
2.	He has crashed both (of) the cars .
3.	Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4	You can take both (of) these books back to the library.

HALF +

1 2 3 4

a the my, your, etc. this, that, these, those

Uncountable or countable noun

Example :

1.	I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2.	You can have half (of) the cake . She gave me half (of) the apples .
3.	I've already given you half (of) my money . Half (of) his books were in French.
4	Half (of) these snakes are harmless You can take half (of) this sugar .

NOTE : All, both, half + OF : 'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun:

All of you; both of us; half of them
It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when there is no article

⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐

GENDER

In English, the four genders of noun are masculine, feminine, common, and neuter.

Masculine nouns refer to words for a male figure or male member of a species (i.e. man, boy, actor, horse, etc.)

Feminine nouns refer to female figures or female members of a species (i.e. woman, girl, actress, mare, etc.)

Common nouns refer to members of a species and don't specify the gender (i.e. parent, friend, client, student, etc.)

Neuter nouns refer to things that have no gender (i.e. rock, table, pencil, etc.)

Objects without life are often personified that is spoken as if they were living beings.We than regard them as males or females.

The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence.

Example

• The Sun,Summer,Winter,Time,Death

The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty,gentleness, and gracefulness.

Example

• The Moon,the earth,Spring,Autumn,Nature,Liberty

PEOPLE

MASCULINE

FAMININE

actor author bachelor boy Boy Scout brave bridegroom brother conductor count czar dad daddy duke emperor father father-in-law fiance gentleman giant god governor grandfather headmaster heir hero host hunter husband king lad landlord lord man manager manservant master mayor milkman millionaire monitor monk Mr. murderer Negro nephew papa poet postman postmaster priest prince prophet proprietor protector shepherd sir son son-in-law step-father step-son steward sultan tailor uncle waiter washerman widower wizard

actress authoress spinster girl Girl Guide Squaw bride sister comductress countess czarina mum mummy duchess empress mother mother-in-law fiancee lady giantess goddess matron grandmother headmistress heiress heroine hostess huntress wife queen lass landlady lady woman manageress maidservant mistress mayoress milkmaid millionairess monitress nun Mrs. murderess Negress niece mama poetess postwoman postmistress prietess princess prophetess proprietress protectress shepherdess madam daughter daughter-in-law step-mother step-daughter stewardess sultana tailoress aunt waitress washerwoman widow witch

CREATURES

MASCULINE	FAMININE
billy-goat boar buck (deer, hare) buck-rabbit bull bull-elephant bull-seal bullock bull-whale cob (swan) cock cockerel cock-pigeon colt (young horse) dog drake drone fox gander hawk he-bear he-goat he-wolf jack-ass leopard lion peacock ram (sheep) stag stallion tiger tom-cat turkey-cock	nanny-goat sow doe doe-rabbit cow cow-elephant cow-seal heifer cow-whale pen hen pullet hen-pigeon filly bitch duck bee vixen goose bowess she-bear she-goat she-wolf jenny-ass, she-ass leopardess lioness peahen ewe hind mare tigress tabby-cat turkey-hen

WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS

There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:

• By using an entirely different word; as
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Bachelor -> maid, spinster
  Boy -> girl
  Brother -> sister
  Buck -> doe
  Bull (or ox) -> cow
  Bullock -> heifer
  Cock -> hen
  Colt -> filly
  Dog -> bitch
  Drake -> duck
  Drone -> bee
  Earl -> countess
  Father -> mother
  Gander -> goose
  Gentleman -> lady
  Hart -> roe
  Horse -> mare
  Husband -> wife
  King -> queen
  Lord -> lady
  Man -> woman
  Monk (or friar) -> nun
  Nephew -> niece
  Papa -> mamma
  Ram -> ewe
  Sir -> madam
  Son -> daughter
  Stag -> hind
  Uncle -> aunt
  Wizard -> witch
  


• By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Author -> authoress
  Baron -> baroness
  Count -> countess
  Giant -> giantess
  Heir -> heiress
  Host -> hostess
  Jew -> Jewess
  Lion -> lioness
  Manager -> manageress
  Mayor -> mayoress
  Patron -> patroness
  Peer -> peeress
  Poet -> poetess
  Priest -> priestess
  Prophet -> prophetess
  Shepherd -> shepherdess
  Steward -> stewardess
  Viscount -> viscountess
  
  [Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending]
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Actor -> actress
  Benefactor -> benefactress
  Conductor -> conductress
  Enchanter -> enchantress
  Founder -> foundress
  Hunter -> huntress
  Instructor -> instructress
  Negro -> negress
  Abbot -> abbess
  Duke -> duchess
  Emperor -> empress
  Preceptor -> preceptress
  Prince -> princess
  Songster -> songstress
  Tempter -> temptress
  Seamster -> seamstress
  Tiger -> tigress
  Traitor -> traitress
  Waiter -> waitress
  Master -> mistress
  Murderer -> murderess
  Sorcerer -> sorceress
  
  Note:- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the Masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Hero -> heroine
  Testator -> testatrix
  Czar -> czarina
  Sultan -> sultana
  Signor -> signora
  Fox -> vixen
  
• By placing a word before or after; as,
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Grandfather -> grandmother
  Greatuncle -> greataunt
  Manservant -> maidservant
  Landlord -> landlady
  milkman -> milkwoman
  peacock -> peahen
  salesman -> saleswoman
  washerman -> washerwoman

English grammar words charts

Ending of the building words

Beginning Blends

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