English grammar 3

Conditionals

Conditionals are structures in English that establish what will happen if a certain event takes place or action is performed, i.e. if a certain condition is true, a certain result occurs. There are four types of commonly used conditionals in English that are differentiated on the basis of the degree of possibility implied by each conditional: the first conditional, the second conditional, the third conditional and the zero conditional.

First Conditional

This conditional is used to talk about future events that might happen. It uses the present tense to discuss the possible future event.

Example:

• If it rains, we will have to cancel the picnic.
• If you come with me, I will make it worth your while.
• If I go abroad, I will get something back for you.
• If you want until 1pm, you can go back with him.
• If you visit Paris, you must see the Eiffel Tower.

Second Conditional

This conditional is used to talk about unreal possibility or impossible events; they establish the course of action that would follow, were something to happen hypothetically.

Example:

• If I had a million dollars, I would buy a penthouse on Park Avenue.
• I could stop working if I won the lottery.
• If I were well-versed in the subject, I would help you with your assignment.
• If I were you, I would ask her to marry me.
• What would you do if it were to rain later?

Third Conditional

This conditionals talks about the past, unlike the first and second which discuss events in the real or unreal future. These conditions, too, are therefore impossible, because they have either already occurred or might have occurred but won't anymore.

Example:

• If I had studied a little more in college, life would have been easier.
• If we had gotten to the airport on time, we would have caught our flight.
• I could have asked him about the matter if he had shown up.

Sometimes the 'if' clause is merely implied, as in:

Example:

• I would have done it. (...if you had asked me to)
• I wouldn't have allowed it. (...if it had been tried with me)

Zero Conditional

The zero conditional discusses an absolute certainty; the result of the condition is always true. The most common types of zero conditionals are scientific facts, like If you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice. Zero conditionals, therefore, do not deal with the future or the past; they simply deal with facts. The 'if' in these conditionals can be replaced with 'when': When you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.

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Could

'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite.

Example

• Could you help me, please?
• Could you lend me some money?
• Could I have a lift?
• Could I bother you for a moment?

If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.

Example

• Of course I can.
• I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now.
• I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail.
• I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.

Example

• It could rain later. Take an umbrella.
• He could be there by now.
• Could he be any happier?
• It could be Steven's.

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Degree Of Comparison

Adjectives change in form to show comparison,they are called Degree Of Comparison.

Type of Degree Of Comparison

POSITIVE DEGREE
COMPARATIVE DEGREE
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

John is a tall boy.
John is taller than Ancy.
John is tallest of them all.

In the first sentence it explains only that, John is a tall boy. Here John is not compared with any others. In such cases, when adjective is used with out any comparison to other nouns we call it as POSITIVE DEGREE.


In the second sentence the adjective is used for comparison between two people, such cases when adjective is used for comaprison of two person,thing we call it as COMPARATIVE DEGREE.

In Comparative Degree use 'than' after the adjectives.
taller than
greater than

In third sentence the comparison is between more than two people,such case we say it as SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.

NOTE :

If ' er ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Comaparative degree is formed and when ' est ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Superlative degree is formed.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
clever long high great sweet young tall	cleverer longer higher greater sweeter younger taller	cleverest longest highest greatest sweetest youngest tallest

If positive ends in 'e' add 'r' and 'st' to form comparative and superlative.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
large wise white brave pure fine able	larger wiser whiter braver purer finer abler	largest wisest whitest bravest purest finest ablest

We can add more and most before adjective to form comparative and superlative.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
beautiful useful famous difficult important honest powerful	more beautiful more useful more famous more difficult more important more honest more powerful	most beautiful most useful most famous most difficult most important most honest most powerful

If positive ends in 'y' add 'er' and 'est' to form comparative and superlative after changing 'y' to 'i'.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
lovely wealthy holy easy happy heavy healthy	lovelier wealthier holier easier happier heavier healthier	loveliest wealthiest holiest easiest happiest heaviest healthiest

For some adjectives that ends mainly with 'd, g, t, m, n' to form comparative and superlative, add the last letter twice and then add 'er' and 'est'.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
red sad big hot fat dim thin	redder sadder bigger hotter fatter dimmer thinner	reddest saddest biggest hottest fattest dimmest thinnest

For some adjectives(positive) form comparative and superlative that are entirely different from the positive form '.

Positive	Comparative	superlative
late good bad much near little many	later, latter better worse more nearer less, lesser more	latest, last best worst most nearest, next least most

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DISTRIBUTIVES

These words can be used in the following ways:

ALL +

1 2 3 4a 4b

- the my, your, etc. this, that these, those

Uncountable noun or Countable noun in the plural Uncountable noun Countable noun in the plural

Example :

1.	All cheese contains protein All children need affection
2.	All the people in the room were silent. Have you eaten all the bread ?
3.	I've invited all my friends to the party. I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a.	Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b.	Look at all those balloons!

BOTH +

1 2 3 4

- the my, your, etc. these, those

Countable noun in the plural

Example :

1.	Both children were born in Italy.
2.	He has crashed both (of) the cars .
3.	Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4	You can take both (of) these books back to the library.

HALF +

1 2 3 4

a the my, your, etc. this, that, these, those

Uncountable or countable noun

Example :

1.	I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2.	You can have half (of) the cake . She gave me half (of) the apples .
3.	I've already given you half (of) my money . Half (of) his books were in French.
4	Half (of) these snakes are harmless You can take half (of) this sugar .

NOTE : All, both, half + OF : 'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun:

All of you; both of us; half of them
It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when there is no article

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GENDER

In English, the four genders of noun are masculine, feminine, common, and neuter.

Masculine nouns refer to words for a male figure or male member of a species (i.e. man, boy, actor, horse, etc.)

Feminine nouns refer to female figures or female members of a species (i.e. woman, girl, actress, mare, etc.)

Common nouns refer to members of a species and don't specify the gender (i.e. parent, friend, client, student, etc.)

Neuter nouns refer to things that have no gender (i.e. rock, table, pencil, etc.)

Objects without life are often personified that is spoken as if they were living beings.We than regard them as males or females.

The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence.

Example

• The Sun,Summer,Winter,Time,Death

The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty,gentleness, and gracefulness.

Example

• The Moon,the earth,Spring,Autumn,Nature,Liberty

PEOPLE

MASCULINE

FAMININE

actor author bachelor boy Boy Scout brave bridegroom brother conductor count czar dad daddy duke emperor father father-in-law fiance gentleman giant god governor grandfather headmaster heir hero host hunter husband king lad landlord lord man manager manservant master mayor milkman millionaire monitor monk Mr. murderer Negro nephew papa poet postman postmaster priest prince prophet proprietor protector shepherd sir son son-in-law step-father step-son steward sultan tailor uncle waiter washerman widower wizard

actress authoress spinster girl Girl Guide Squaw bride sister comductress countess czarina mum mummy duchess empress mother mother-in-law fiancee lady giantess goddess matron grandmother headmistress heiress heroine hostess huntress wife queen lass landlady lady woman manageress maidservant mistress mayoress milkmaid millionairess monitress nun Mrs. murderess Negress niece mama poetess postwoman postmistress prietess princess prophetess proprietress protectress shepherdess madam daughter daughter-in-law step-mother step-daughter stewardess sultana tailoress aunt waitress washerwoman widow witch

CREATURES

MASCULINE	FAMININE
billy-goat boar buck (deer, hare) buck-rabbit bull bull-elephant bull-seal bullock bull-whale cob (swan) cock cockerel cock-pigeon colt (young horse) dog drake drone fox gander hawk he-bear he-goat he-wolf jack-ass leopard lion peacock ram (sheep) stag stallion tiger tom-cat turkey-cock	nanny-goat sow doe doe-rabbit cow cow-elephant cow-seal heifer cow-whale pen hen pullet hen-pigeon filly bitch duck bee vixen goose bowess she-bear she-goat she-wolf jenny-ass, she-ass leopardess lioness peahen ewe hind mare tigress tabby-cat turkey-hen

WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS

There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:

• By using an entirely different word; as
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Bachelor -> maid, spinster
  Boy -> girl
  Brother -> sister
  Buck -> doe
  Bull (or ox) -> cow
  Bullock -> heifer
  Cock -> hen
  Colt -> filly
  Dog -> bitch
  Drake -> duck
  Drone -> bee
  Earl -> countess
  Father -> mother
  Gander -> goose
  Gentleman -> lady
  Hart -> roe
  Horse -> mare
  Husband -> wife
  King -> queen
  Lord -> lady
  Man -> woman
  Monk (or friar) -> nun
  Nephew -> niece
  Papa -> mamma
  Ram -> ewe
  Sir -> madam
  Son -> daughter
  Stag -> hind
  Uncle -> aunt
  Wizard -> witch
  


• By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Author -> authoress
  Baron -> baroness
  Count -> countess
  Giant -> giantess
  Heir -> heiress
  Host -> hostess
  Jew -> Jewess
  Lion -> lioness
  Manager -> manageress
  Mayor -> mayoress
  Patron -> patroness
  Peer -> peeress
  Poet -> poetess
  Priest -> priestess
  Prophet -> prophetess
  Shepherd -> shepherdess
  Steward -> stewardess
  Viscount -> viscountess
  
  [Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending]
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Actor -> actress
  Benefactor -> benefactress
  Conductor -> conductress
  Enchanter -> enchantress
  Founder -> foundress
  Hunter -> huntress
  Instructor -> instructress
  Negro -> negress
  Abbot -> abbess
  Duke -> duchess
  Emperor -> empress
  Preceptor -> preceptress
  Prince -> princess
  Songster -> songstress
  Tempter -> temptress
  Seamster -> seamstress
  Tiger -> tigress
  Traitor -> traitress
  Waiter -> waitress
  Master -> mistress
  Murderer -> murderess
  Sorcerer -> sorceress
  
  Note:- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the Masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Hero -> heroine
  Testator -> testatrix
  Czar -> czarina
  Sultan -> sultana
  Signor -> signora
  Fox -> vixen
  
• By placing a word before or after; as,
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Grandfather -> grandmother
  Greatuncle -> greataunt
  Manservant -> maidservant
  Landlord -> landlady
  milkman -> milkwoman
  peacock -> peahen
  salesman -> saleswoman
  washerman -> washerwoman