English Grammer 04

GERUND AND INFINITIVE

The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.

Example

I prefer to live in an apartment.

I prefer living in an apartment.

Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:

allow

attempt

begin

bother

cease

continue

deserve

fear*

hate*

intend*

like

love

neglect

omit

permit

prefer*

recommend*

start

Notes:

1. Allow is used in these two patterns:

a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:

Her parents allowed her to go to the party.

b. Allow + gerund:

Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.

2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there is a passive meaning:

Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.

These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).

3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.

Compare:

I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.

I hate looking after elderly relatives!

I love dancing .

I would love to dance with you.

Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning :

Verbs marked with an asterisk * can also be followed by a that-clause .

come

forget *

go on

mean *

regret *

remember *

stop

try

Come:

Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is doing something as they move:

She came running across the field.

Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control:

At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour.

How did you come to be outside the skipped house?

This word has come to mean something quite different.

Forget, regret and remember:

When these verbs are followed by a gerund , the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier:

I remember locking the door ( = I remember now, I locked the door earlier)

He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely at some earlier time in the past.)

Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form:

I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time.

When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive , the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time, or later:

I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.)

Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.)

We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before we tell you this bad news.)

Go on:

Go on + gerund means to continue with an action:

He went on speaking for two hours.

I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted.

Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process:

After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company.

John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of Parliament.

Mean:

Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary:

If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day.

We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel.

Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan:

Did you mean to dial this number?

I mean to finish this job by the end of the week!

Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.

Stop:

Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress:

I stopped working for them because the wages were so low.

Stop tickling me!

Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is used to express a purpose:

I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in order to eat.)

It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answerOption the phone every five minutes.

Try:

Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem.

If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you could try drinking some warm milk.

'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?'

Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or even impossible:

The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table.

We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone.

People have to try to live together in harmony.

The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.

Example

• I prefer to live in an apartment.
• I prefer living in an apartment.

Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:

allow attempt begin bother cease continue

deserve fear* hate* intend* like love

neglect omit permit prefer* recommend* start

Notes:

1. Allow is used in these two patterns:
a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:

• Her parents allowed her to go to the party.

b. Allow + gerund:

• Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.

2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there is a passive meaning:

• Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.
• These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).

3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.

Compare:

• I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.
• I hate looking after elderly relatives!
• I love dancing .
• I would love to dance with you.

Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning :
Verbs marked with an asterisk * can also be followed by a that-clause .

come forget * go on

mean * regret * remember *

stop try

Come:

Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is doing something as they move: She came running across the field. Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control: At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour. How did you come to be outside the skipped house? This word has come to mean something quite different.

Forget, regret and remember:

When these verbs are followed by a gerund , the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier: I remember locking the door ( = I remember now, I locked the door earlier) He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely at some earlier time in the past.) Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form: I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time. When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive , the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time, or later: I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.) Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.) We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before we tell you this bad news.)

Go on:

Go on + gerund means to continue with an action: He went on speaking for two hours. I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted. Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process: After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company. John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of Parliament.

Mean:

Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary: If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day. We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel. Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan: Did you mean to dial this number? I mean to finish this job by the end of the week! Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.

Stop:

Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress: I stopped working for them because the wages were so low. Stop tickling me! Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is used to express a purpose: I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in order to eat.) It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answerOption the phone every five minutes.

Try:

Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem. If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you could try drinking some warm milk. 'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?' Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or even impossible: The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table. We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone. People have to try to live tog 🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿🌿 The Gerund and the Present Participle: 'ING' Form The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund. The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the word does in the sentence. The present participle This is most commonly used: as part of the continuous form of a verb, he is painting ; she has been waiting after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle , She sat looking at the sea after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle , We saw him swimming as an adjective, e.g. amazing , worrying , exciting , boring The gerund This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used: as the subject of the sentence: Eating people is skipped. after prepositions: Can you sneeze without opening your mouth? She is good at painting after certain verbs, e.g. like , hate , admit , imagine in compound nouns, e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird- watching , train- spotting 🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗🔗 THE GERUND This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common to call both forms 'the -ing form' . However it is useful to understand the difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used: as the subject of the sentence: Eating people is skipped. Hunting tigers is dangerous. Flying makes me nervous. as the complement of the verb 'to be' One of his duties is attending meetings. The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund. One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed. after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition: Can you sneeze without opening your mouth? She is good at painting . They're keen on windsurfing . She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road. We arrived in Madrid after driving all night. My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary. This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no point in..: There's no point in waiting . In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time. after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb Example to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on: I look forward to hearing from you soon. ( at the end of a letter) When are you going to give up smoking ? She always puts off goi ng to the dentist. He kept on asking for money. NOTE There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive : - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund: We are looking forward to seeing you. I am used to waiting for buses. She didn't really take to studying English. It is possible to check whether 'to? is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive : if you can put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a gerund: I am accustomed to it (the cold). I am accustomed to being cold. in compound nouns Example a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird- watching , train- spotting It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous verb. Example the pool is not swimming, it is a pool for swimming in . after the expressions: can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the adjective worth: She couldn't help falling in love with him. I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams. It's no use/good trying to escape. It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train. ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following ways: as part of the continuous form of a verb Example I am working he was singing they have been walking after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle Example She went shopping He lay looking up at the clouds She came running towards me This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go' , as in these common expressions : to go shopping to go ski-ing to go fishing to go surfing to go walking to go swimming to go running to go dancing after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle Example I heard someone singing . He saw his friend walking along the road. I can smell something burning ! NOTE : There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to an incomplete action, or part of an action. Compare: I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on afterwards) I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance ) as an adjective Example amazing, worrying, exciting, boring. It was an amazing film. It's a bit worrying when the police stop you Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm. Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph. He was trapped inside the burning house. Many of his paintings depict the setting sun. with the verbs spend and waste , in the pattern: verb + time/money expression + present participle Example My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work. Don't waste time playing computer games! They've spent the whole day shopping . with the verbs catch and find , in the pattern: verb + object + present participle: With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger: If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble! Don't let him catch you reading his letters. This is not the case with find , which is unemotional: We found some money lying on the ground. They found their mother sitting in the garden. to replace a sentence or part of a sentence: When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present participle to describe one of them: They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went. They went laughing out into the snow. He whistled to himself. He walked down the road. Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a present participle: He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house. She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because , and it explains the cause or reason for an action: Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge. (= because he felt hungry...) Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes. Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat. 📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌📌 VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND The gerund is used after certain verbs. Example miss : I miss living in England. The most important of these verbs are shown below. Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause Example VERB GERUND She admitted... breaking the window THAT-CLAUSE She admitted... that she had broken the window. Note: Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund does not refer to the subject. Compare : I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...) I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...) Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and the gerund (both common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said): Excuse me interrupting . Excuse me for interrupting . Excuse my interrupting . Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL . It is important not to confuse these patterns: suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund: He suggests going to Glastonbury He suggested going to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted): He suggests that I should go to New York He suggested that I should go to New York He suggested/suggests I should go to New York He suggested/suggests I go to New York He suggested I went to New York. suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive: He suggested where to go. Propose is followed by the gerund when it means ' suggest': John proposed going to the debate but by the infinitive when it means 'intend': The Government proposes bringing in new laws .. Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning. Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think' , in the expression 'I dread to think': I dread to think what she'll do next. Prevent is followed EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund: You can't prevent my leaving . OR by an object + from + gerund: You can't prevent me from leaving . Example Normally, a girl wouldn't think of marrying a man she did not love. Most people don't like receiving bad news. We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes. If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night. I can't imagine living in that big house. If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London. She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge. They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved. 🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸🌸 All the sophisticated things get updated every day.  Here is the only study that can be shared.  (Subject-based, current phenomenon,  Provide useful information for competitive exams  ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐  What's Up Groups ಹೊಸಬೆಳಕು 1 1 to 7th ಕ್ಲಾಸ್ ಸ್ಟಡಿ ಗ್ರೂಪ್  ಶಿಕ್ಷಣವೇ ಶಕ್ತಿ ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLUB 8th to 10th class study groups PUC ಸ್ಟಡಿ ಗ್ರೂಪ್ಸ್

English grammar 3

Conditionals

Conditionals are structures in English that establish what will happen if a certain event takes place or action is performed, i.e. if a certain condition is true, a certain result occurs. There are four types of commonly used conditionals in English that are differentiated on the basis of the degree of possibility implied by each conditional: the first conditional, the second conditional, the third conditional and the zero conditional.

First Conditional

This conditional is used to talk about future events that might happen. It uses the present tense to discuss the possible future event.

Example:

• If it rains, we will have to cancel the picnic.
• If you come with me, I will make it worth your while.
• If I go abroad, I will get something back for you.
• If you want until 1pm, you can go back with him.
• If you visit Paris, you must see the Eiffel Tower.

Second Conditional

This conditional is used to talk about unreal possibility or impossible events; they establish the course of action that would follow, were something to happen hypothetically.

Example:

• If I had a million dollars, I would buy a penthouse on Park Avenue.
• I could stop working if I won the lottery.
• If I were well-versed in the subject, I would help you with your assignment.
• If I were you, I would ask her to marry me.
• What would you do if it were to rain later?

Third Conditional

This conditionals talks about the past, unlike the first and second which discuss events in the real or unreal future. These conditions, too, are therefore impossible, because they have either already occurred or might have occurred but won't anymore.

Example:

• If I had studied a little more in college, life would have been easier.
• If we had gotten to the airport on time, we would have caught our flight.
• I could have asked him about the matter if he had shown up.

Sometimes the 'if' clause is merely implied, as in:

Example:

• I would have done it. (...if you had asked me to)
• I wouldn't have allowed it. (...if it had been tried with me)

Zero Conditional

The zero conditional discusses an absolute certainty; the result of the condition is always true. The most common types of zero conditionals are scientific facts, like If you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice. Zero conditionals, therefore, do not deal with the future or the past; they simply deal with facts. The 'if' in these conditionals can be replaced with 'when': When you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.

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Could

'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite.

Example

• Could you help me, please?
• Could you lend me some money?
• Could I have a lift?
• Could I bother you for a moment?

If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.

Example

• Of course I can.
• I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now.
• I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail.
• I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.

Example

• It could rain later. Take an umbrella.
• He could be there by now.
• Could he be any happier?
• It could be Steven's.

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Degree Of Comparison

Adjectives change in form to show comparison,they are called Degree Of Comparison.

Type of Degree Of Comparison

POSITIVE DEGREE
COMPARATIVE DEGREE
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

John is a tall boy.
John is taller than Ancy.
John is tallest of them all.

In the first sentence it explains only that, John is a tall boy. Here John is not compared with any others. In such cases, when adjective is used with out any comparison to other nouns we call it as POSITIVE DEGREE.


In the second sentence the adjective is used for comparison between two people, such cases when adjective is used for comaprison of two person,thing we call it as COMPARATIVE DEGREE.

In Comparative Degree use 'than' after the adjectives.
taller than
greater than

In third sentence the comparison is between more than two people,such case we say it as SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.

NOTE :

If ' er ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Comaparative degree is formed and when ' est ' is added to Adjectives(positive) then Superlative degree is formed.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
clever long high great sweet young tall	cleverer longer higher greater sweeter younger taller	cleverest longest highest greatest sweetest youngest tallest

If positive ends in 'e' add 'r' and 'st' to form comparative and superlative.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
large wise white brave pure fine able	larger wiser whiter braver purer finer abler	largest wisest whitest bravest purest finest ablest

We can add more and most before adjective to form comparative and superlative.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
beautiful useful famous difficult important honest powerful	more beautiful more useful more famous more difficult more important more honest more powerful	most beautiful most useful most famous most difficult most important most honest most powerful

If positive ends in 'y' add 'er' and 'est' to form comparative and superlative after changing 'y' to 'i'.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
lovely wealthy holy easy happy heavy healthy	lovelier wealthier holier easier happier heavier healthier	loveliest wealthiest holiest easiest happiest heaviest healthiest

For some adjectives that ends mainly with 'd, g, t, m, n' to form comparative and superlative, add the last letter twice and then add 'er' and 'est'.

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
red sad big hot fat dim thin	redder sadder bigger hotter fatter dimmer thinner	reddest saddest biggest hottest fattest dimmest thinnest

For some adjectives(positive) form comparative and superlative that are entirely different from the positive form '.

Positive	Comparative	superlative
late good bad much near little many	later, latter better worse more nearer less, lesser more	latest, last best worst most nearest, next least most

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DISTRIBUTIVES

These words can be used in the following ways:

ALL +

1 2 3 4a 4b

- the my, your, etc. this, that these, those

Uncountable noun or Countable noun in the plural Uncountable noun Countable noun in the plural

Example :

1.	All cheese contains protein All children need affection
2.	All the people in the room were silent. Have you eaten all the bread ?
3.	I've invited all my friends to the party. I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a.	Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b.	Look at all those balloons!

BOTH +

1 2 3 4

- the my, your, etc. these, those

Countable noun in the plural

Example :

1.	Both children were born in Italy.
2.	He has crashed both (of) the cars .
3.	Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4	You can take both (of) these books back to the library.

HALF +

1 2 3 4

a the my, your, etc. this, that, these, those

Uncountable or countable noun

Example :

1.	I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2.	You can have half (of) the cake . She gave me half (of) the apples .
3.	I've already given you half (of) my money . Half (of) his books were in French.
4	Half (of) these snakes are harmless You can take half (of) this sugar .

NOTE : All, both, half + OF : 'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun:

All of you; both of us; half of them
It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when there is no article

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GENDER

In English, the four genders of noun are masculine, feminine, common, and neuter.

Masculine nouns refer to words for a male figure or male member of a species (i.e. man, boy, actor, horse, etc.)

Feminine nouns refer to female figures or female members of a species (i.e. woman, girl, actress, mare, etc.)

Common nouns refer to members of a species and don't specify the gender (i.e. parent, friend, client, student, etc.)

Neuter nouns refer to things that have no gender (i.e. rock, table, pencil, etc.)

Objects without life are often personified that is spoken as if they were living beings.We than regard them as males or females.

The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence.

Example

• The Sun,Summer,Winter,Time,Death

The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty,gentleness, and gracefulness.

Example

• The Moon,the earth,Spring,Autumn,Nature,Liberty

PEOPLE

MASCULINE

FAMININE

actor author bachelor boy Boy Scout brave bridegroom brother conductor count czar dad daddy duke emperor father father-in-law fiance gentleman giant god governor grandfather headmaster heir hero host hunter husband king lad landlord lord man manager manservant master mayor milkman millionaire monitor monk Mr. murderer Negro nephew papa poet postman postmaster priest prince prophet proprietor protector shepherd sir son son-in-law step-father step-son steward sultan tailor uncle waiter washerman widower wizard

actress authoress spinster girl Girl Guide Squaw bride sister comductress countess czarina mum mummy duchess empress mother mother-in-law fiancee lady giantess goddess matron grandmother headmistress heiress heroine hostess huntress wife queen lass landlady lady woman manageress maidservant mistress mayoress milkmaid millionairess monitress nun Mrs. murderess Negress niece mama poetess postwoman postmistress prietess princess prophetess proprietress protectress shepherdess madam daughter daughter-in-law step-mother step-daughter stewardess sultana tailoress aunt waitress washerwoman widow witch

CREATURES

MASCULINE	FAMININE
billy-goat boar buck (deer, hare) buck-rabbit bull bull-elephant bull-seal bullock bull-whale cob (swan) cock cockerel cock-pigeon colt (young horse) dog drake drone fox gander hawk he-bear he-goat he-wolf jack-ass leopard lion peacock ram (sheep) stag stallion tiger tom-cat turkey-cock	nanny-goat sow doe doe-rabbit cow cow-elephant cow-seal heifer cow-whale pen hen pullet hen-pigeon filly bitch duck bee vixen goose bowess she-bear she-goat she-wolf jenny-ass, she-ass leopardess lioness peahen ewe hind mare tigress tabby-cat turkey-hen

WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS

There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:

• By using an entirely different word; as
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Bachelor -> maid, spinster
  Boy -> girl
  Brother -> sister
  Buck -> doe
  Bull (or ox) -> cow
  Bullock -> heifer
  Cock -> hen
  Colt -> filly
  Dog -> bitch
  Drake -> duck
  Drone -> bee
  Earl -> countess
  Father -> mother
  Gander -> goose
  Gentleman -> lady
  Hart -> roe
  Horse -> mare
  Husband -> wife
  King -> queen
  Lord -> lady
  Man -> woman
  Monk (or friar) -> nun
  Nephew -> niece
  Papa -> mamma
  Ram -> ewe
  Sir -> madam
  Son -> daughter
  Stag -> hind
  Uncle -> aunt
  Wizard -> witch
  


• By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Author -> authoress
  Baron -> baroness
  Count -> countess
  Giant -> giantess
  Heir -> heiress
  Host -> hostess
  Jew -> Jewess
  Lion -> lioness
  Manager -> manageress
  Mayor -> mayoress
  Patron -> patroness
  Peer -> peeress
  Poet -> poetess
  Priest -> priestess
  Prophet -> prophetess
  Shepherd -> shepherdess
  Steward -> stewardess
  Viscount -> viscountess
  
  [Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending]
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Actor -> actress
  Benefactor -> benefactress
  Conductor -> conductress
  Enchanter -> enchantress
  Founder -> foundress
  Hunter -> huntress
  Instructor -> instructress
  Negro -> negress
  Abbot -> abbess
  Duke -> duchess
  Emperor -> empress
  Preceptor -> preceptress
  Prince -> princess
  Songster -> songstress
  Tempter -> temptress
  Seamster -> seamstress
  Tiger -> tigress
  Traitor -> traitress
  Waiter -> waitress
  Master -> mistress
  Murderer -> murderess
  Sorcerer -> sorceress
  
  Note:- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the Masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Hero -> heroine
  Testator -> testatrix
  Czar -> czarina
  Sultan -> sultana
  Signor -> signora
  Fox -> vixen
  
• By placing a word before or after; as,
  Masculine -> Feminine
  Grandfather -> grandmother
  Greatuncle -> greataunt
  Manservant -> maidservant
  Landlord -> landlady
  milkman -> milkwoman
  peacock -> peahen
  salesman -> saleswoman
  washerman -> washerwoman

English grammar words charts

Ending of the building words

Beginning Blends

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ENGLISH GRAMMER - 02

Active and passive voice:-

Only TRANSITIVE VERB has two voices - Active and Passive Voices

Subjects, Verb and Objects

• Subjects - One who does an action.
  
• Verb - Action is called verb.
  
• Objects - One who is affected by the action of subject.
  

Example

• The teacher punished the boy.
• Subject - teacher
• Verb - punished
• Object - boy

The teacher punished the boy. (Active Voice)
When this sentence is converted to passive voice the 'object' act as 'subject' and vice-versa.
The boy was punished by the teacher. (Passive Voice)

• Subject - boyTeacher
  
• Verb - punished
• Object - teacher

Example

• The dog bit the man. (Active Voice)
• The man was bitten by the dog. (Passive Voice)

I gave him a rupee. (Active Voice)
A rupee was given to him by me. (Passive Voice)
He was given a rupee by me. (Passive Voice)

When Active Voice contains two object the passive voice can be written in 2 forms such as..

Example

• The teacher gave me two books. (Active Voice)
• Two books were given to me by the teacher. (Passive Voice)
• I was given two books by the teacher. (Passive Voice)

Here 'two books'(Direct Object) and 'me'(Indirect Object) are the two objects.
I gave him a rupee. (Active Voice)
A rupee was given to him by me. (Passive Voice)
He was given a rupee by me. (Passive Voice)
If Active Voice contains 'Continous Form Of Verb(verb showing a continous action) then use 'being' with verb in Passive Voice

Example

• Juli is writing a letter. (Active Voice)
• A letter is being written by juli. (Passive Voice)

If Active Voice is in 'Perfect Tense' then use 'been' in Passive Voice

Example

• John has killed a snake. (Active Voice)
• A snake has been killed by John. (Passive Voice)

If Active Voice is in 'Future Tense' then use 'been' in Passive Voice

Example

• He will have brought some oranges. (Active Voice)
• Some oranges will have been brought by him. (Passive Voice)

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Adverbials:-

Adverbials modify or tell us something about the sentence or the verb. It may be a single adverb, a phrase, or a prepositional phrase, or clause element.

When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb.

Example

• The people looked at me.
• The people looked at me anxiously. (The verb looked suddenly has a very different meaning).

When an adverbial modifies a sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes.

Example

• I passed all of my exams.
• Surprisingly, I passed all of my exams.

Word groups that are also considered to be adverbials can also modify verbs: a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a finite clause or a non-finite clause.

Multi-word adverbials are sometimes called adverbial phrases.

Example

• I ran as quickly as I could, but I missed the bus.

If a whole clause acts as an adverbial, it's called an adverbial clause.

Example

• I'll go to bed when the film ends.

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Articles:-

Adjective a,an the are called articles.

Example

• Everest,London,Mumbai,New york

Type of Articles

INDEFINITE ARTICLES

'a or an' are indefinite articles and are used when to say about not a definite person, place or thing.

Example

• I saw a girl.(any girl --not definite)
• He gave me an orange.

DEFINITE ARTICLES

'the' is called definite article and is used when to say about a definite person, place or thing.

Example

• I saw the girl who secured the first rank.(girl --is definite)

Usage of Definite Articles

'the' is used before the following common noun.

Example

• the sun, the moon, the planet, the sky, the earth

'the' is used before a particular person or thing already referred to.

Example

• The boy whom I met yesterday.
• The book that I gave you.

'the' is used before some books.

Example

• The Ramayana
• The Koran.
• The Bible.

'the' is used before name of rivers,mountain,seas,oceans,islands..etc.

Example

• The Ganges
• The Nile.
• The Laccadive.

'the' is used before a singular noun that represents the whole class.

Example

• The cowis a domestic animal.
• The rose smells sweet.
• The parrotis a beautiful bird.

'the' is used before superlatives.

Example

• The highest mountain in the world.
• The best picture I have ever seen.

'the' is not used before proper noun.

Example

• Mumbai is a major port in India.
• Pacific is the deepest ocean.

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Capitalization:- means using a capital letter (for example, A instead of a). The use of capital letters helps readers read your writing without confusion.

Always capitalize the following:

The first word in a sentence.

• I grew up in India.
• S he left a message on my phone.

The pronoun I.

• This country is where I dreamed of.

The first letter of a proper noun (specific name).

• D avid wants to play soccer with us.
• This letter is from C hang.
• I graduated from the U niversity of N ew Y ork.
• I like C oca- C ola.
• She likes G odiva chocolates.

The first letter of months, days, and holidays (but not seasons).

• Today is J une 8, 2011.
• Susie's birthday is this T hursday.
• The shops are closed on E aster.
• This summer is going to be very hot.

The first letter of nationalities, religions, races of people, and languages.

• We often eat I talian food.
• I want to master many languages, such as S panish, K orean, C hinese, and R ussian.
• There is one C hristian church in my town.

The first letter in a person's title.

• This is D r. Simon.
• I got it from M r. Tom.

Geographic areas: cities, states, countries, mountains, oceans, rivers, etc.

• My destination is P aris, F rance.
• Hawaii is in the middle of the P acific O cean.

Historical periods.

• The R enaissance began in the 14th century.
• The Q ing D ynasty is the last dynasty in China.

The first letter of each major word in the title of a book, movie, article, etc.

• Tolstoy's W ar and P eace is my favorite novel.
• I found the article " H ow to W rite a G ood C over L etter" in this magazine.

---

Correctly write each sentence using proper Capitalization.

1) i was born in shanghai, china, but grew up in the united states.
2) mrs. ohana gave me the bible.
3) if you walk two more blocks, you will be able to see mt. rocky.
4) my family will have a summer vacation in hawaii.
5) I didn't want to cook tonight, so I just ordered thai food for dinner.

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Cases:-

Case is the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun. There are only three cases in modern English, they are subjective (he), objective (him) and possessive (his). They may seem more familiar in their old English form - nominative, accusative and genitive. There is no dative case in modern English.

The pronoun cases only three:-

• 1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
• 2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
• 3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

PERSONAL PRONOUN

Subjective/Nominative	Objective/Accusative	Possessive/Genitive
Referring to the subject in a sentence	Referring to the object in a sentence	The apostrophe form of the word ("Lynne's).
I	Me	Mine
You	You	Yours
He	Him	His
She	Her	Hers
It	It	Its
We	Us	Ours
They	Them	Theirs
Who	Whom	Whose

These pronouns, and who and its compounds, are the only words that are inflected in all three cases (subjective, objective, possessive). In nouns the first two cases (subjective and objective) are indistinguishable, and are called the common case. One result of this simplicity is that, the sense of case being almost lost, the few mistakes that can be made are made often, even by native speakers, some of them so often that they are now almost right by prescription.

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Common mistakes (confused words)

1 Accept ,Except

The words, 'accept' and 'except' are homophones which are often confused by English speakers. 'Accept' is a verb which means 'to receive' or 'to agree'. Most of the time 'except' is used as a preposition which means 'excluding'.

The following examples will make the usage clear.

Accept (VERB)	Except (PREPOSITION)
Amit accepted the job offer.	I can come with you on all days except Sunday.
Sanjiv accepted the allegation that he had cheated.	All the athletes except Anjali finished the race.
He accepted the invitation to the party.	Everyone except Shantanu was invited to the party.

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2. Bought, Brought

The difference between these two words is a very simple one. They are the past tenses of two different verbs.

'Bought' is the past tense of 'buy'.

Example

• I bought a new car last week.

'Brought' is the past tense of 'bring'

Example

• I brought him a glass of water.

The difference can be remembered easily too, as 'bring' shares its first two letters with 'brought' ('br').

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3.Can , May

 Many English speakers are confused about the usage of the words 'can' and 'may'. For e.g., 'Can I drink water?' is incorrect. 'May I drink water?' is the correct phrase to use in this case.

The key difference between 'can' and 'may' is that 'can' talks about ability and 'may' talks about permission.

CAN

Can is used in two cases:

To talk about ability.

Example

• I can finish my homework by 5 pm.
• Can you finish your homework tonight?

To ask or give permission informally.

Example

• Can I use your pen? (To a friend)
• You can use my pen. (To a friend)

MAY

May is generally used to ask or give permission formally.

Let us take a situation between a student and a teacher.

Example

• May I drink water?
• Teacher: Yes, you may.

Let us take a situation between two strangers.

Example

• May I borrow your pen?
• Yes, you may.

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4. Affect, Effect

Two words commonly confused by English speakers are 'effect' and 'affect'. 'Affect' is used as a verb and means 'to have an influence on' and 'Effect' is used as a noun and means 'the result'.

AFFECT

Example

• The dropped catch did not affect the result of the game.
• The heavy rainfall affected the grains kept in the old warehouse.

EFFECT

Example

• The effect of the tsunami was devastating.
• The side effect of the cough syrup was drowsiness.

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5. Have, Has

'Have' and 'has' are both used to denote possession, form the perfect tense, and the past tense of both is 'had', but they are used differently.

Have

'Have' is used with the following pronouns: I, you, we, they.

Example

• I have a pencil.
• We have a big house.

Pluralised nouns

Example

• Doctors have a rough time, dealing with illnesses all the time.

Has

'Has' is used with the third person singular ( he, she, it) .

Example

• She has your money.
• Amit has the book.

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6. There, Their, They're

Many speakers tend to get confused between 'There', 'Their' and 'They're' and knowing how to use these three words correctly is an important step in learning English.

The words 'There' and' Their' are homophones. Homophones are words that are spelt differently but pronounced the same. It is a common mistake to replace one for the other.

'There' always refers to a place, whether concrete or abstract, whereas 'Their' shows belonging or possession. 'They're, on the other hand, is the short form of they are

Let's look at these examples for each of them

THERE

Example

• How can anyone live there?
• Let's go there.
• There will be a party tomorrow,

THEIR

Example

• Let us buy their car.
• Let us not go to their house.
• Return their books tomorrow.

THEY'RE

Example

• They're sitting there in their car.

In this sentence, notice how 'there' is used to signify a place whereas 'their' is used to show possession. The word 'they're' is a contraction of the word 'they' and 'are' and should not be confused with 'their' and 'there'.

✍️T. A Chandrashekhar

English Grammar No- 01

What is Grammar ?

Science that deals with correct use of language both in conversation and writing.

Sentence

Group of words which makes complete sense.

Example

• The Earth goes around the sun.
• Where do you come from ?

Phrase

Group of words which makes sense but not complete sense.They have no subject or predicateof their own.

Example

• in search of.
• as soon as possible.

Clause

Group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a subject and a predicate.

Example

• The man whom I hate.
• While it is raining.

TypesOf Sentences

Statements or Assertion
A sentence that makes a statement or assertion.

Example

• The sun rises in the east.
• The cow eats grass.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

A sentence that asks a question.

Example

• Why did you go there ?
• How old are you ?

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

A sentence which expresses a command, a requestor or a wish.

Example

• Get out of the class.
• sit down

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

A sentence which expresses a sudden, strong feeling.

Example

• How beautiful the sky is!
• What a fine morning!

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PARTS OF SPEECH:-

Word used as name of a person, place or thing.

There are 8 kinds of Parts speech in English language

📚 Noun

📚 Pronoun

📚 Verb

📚 Adverb

📚 Adjective

📚 Conjunction

📚Preposition

📚 Interjection

Example

• Everest, London, Mumbai, New york

Type of Nouns

PROPER NOUNS

Word used as name of a particular person, place or thing.

Example

• Everest, London, Mumbai, New york

COMMON NOUNS

Name given in common to every person or thing of same class or kind.

Example

• boy, tree, horse, king, town

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Name of a group of person or things taken as a single whole.

Example

• crowd, army, team, family, assembly, committee

ABSTRACT NOUNS

Name of quality, state or action of a person or thing.

Example

• Goodness, kindness, slavery, poverty, laughter, theft, childhood

MATERIAL NOUNS

Name of materials out of which things are made.

Example

• gold, wood, stone, iron, wool, bronze, clay.

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PRONOUN

Pronoun is the word used instead of a noun.

Example

• Harry is a good boy.He rises early in the morning.( 'He' is the pronoun used instead of Harry.)
• him, he, she, it, my, mine, our, we, ours.. etc

Type Of Pronouns

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

PERSON	SINGULAR NUMBER	PLURAL NUMBER
First Person	I my mine me	We our ours us
Second Person	You your yours you	You your yours you
Third Person Masculine Gender Feminine Gender Neuter Gender	He She It his her hers its him her it	All Genders they they they their, theirs their, theirs their, theirs them them them

First Person stands for the person speaking.
Second Person stands for the person spoken to.
Third Person stands for any one or anything.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns are used for asking questions.

Example

• Who are you ?
• who, what, which, whom, whose.. etc

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Words such as who, what, which, that ..etc are called relative pronouns since they expresses relation between two sentences or phrases.

Example

• I saw an old man.He was too weak to walk.
• I saw an old man who was too weak to walk.(who is the relative pronoun added to above sentence)
• This is what I expected.

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VERB

A verb is a word which tells us what a person or a thing is doing ; Verb shows an action.

Example

• The girl eats mangoes.
• John is telling a story.
• eat, tell, play, run, write, open, kill...

Type of Verb

TRANSITIVE VERB

A verb which has an object is called a Transitive verb. Some time transitive verb may have two objects.

Example

• The cow gives us milk.
• The cow gives us -what?-- milk
• To whom ? us

INTRANSITIVE VERB

A verb which has no object is called a Intransitive verb.

Example

• He plays only on sundays.
• He fought bravely.

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ADVERB

An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverd.

Example

• The old man walked slowly .
• Juli writes very carefully .
• He works hard from dawn to night.

Type of Adverbs

ADVERB OF TIME

If a verb answers for question 'When' then the adverb shows the time of action.

Example

• He left the place a few minutes ago.
• He will soon come back.

ADVERB OF PLACE

If a verb answers for question 'Where' then the adverb shows the place of action.

Example

• I met him in the theatre.
• This is the place where the tree stood.

ADVERB OF NUMBER

If a verb answers for question 'How often' then the adverb shows the number of the action.

Example

• The comet appears once in several years.
• That poor man is always happy

ADVERB OF MANNER

If a verb answers for question 'How' or'In what manner' then it shows the condition of verb.

Example

• He was seriously injured.
• Johny writes very carefully.

ADVERB OF DEGREE or QUANTITY

If a verb answers for question 'How much' or'In what'.

Example

• The sky is very cloudy.
• She sings pretty well.

ADVERB OF REASON

If a verb explains the reason for the action then called adverb of reason.

Example

• As he was not well.
• Therefore he returned home.

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ADJECTIVE

Word that qualifies a noun and points out the quality,number or kind of the person, place or thing represented by the noun.

Example

• John is a clever boy.
• Uncle gave me a beautiful watch.
• sweet, blue, good, bad, tall, short...

Type of Adjectives

ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY

Shows the kind or quality of a person or thing.

Example

• He is an honest boy.
• The elephant is black.
• old, young, clever, wise, tall, short..

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY

Shows how much of a thing is meant.

Example

• He has lost all his wealth.
• I have enough clothes.
• any,little, some...

ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER

Shows how many person or things are meant.

Example

• I have two brothers.
• Only a few students failed.
• many, all, several...

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES

They point out which person or thing is meant.

Example

• The boy is taller than Alex.
• These mangoes are sweet .
• beautiful, that, such...

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

What,which,whose..etc : when they are used with nouns to ask questions.

Example

• What kind of animal is this?
• Whose book is this?

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CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is a word which joins together words or sentences.

Example

• And, as, but, before, after, if, whether, than, when, that, though, for, yet, why, unless, while, lest ..etc.

Types Of Conjunction

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

When phrase used as conjunction they are called Phrase Conjunction.

Example

• As soon as he saw his father,he threw the cigarette away.
• She appeared on the scene as if she were a princess.
• It seems as though it is going to rain.
• The teacher as well as his student was injured.
• This is fully correct as far as I am concerned.
• I would not do that even if he gave thousands of rupees.
• I worked hard so that I might get a first class.

CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction that joins together sentences, clauses or words of equal rank, is called a CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTION.

Example

• and, but, for, also, or, nor, so, yet,either..or, neither..nor
• The idol is made of bronze and the toy is made of wood.
• Please,take coffee or tea.
• Do or die.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction that joins a clause to the main clause in a sentence SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION.

Example

• after, before, because, if, whether, when, where, how,while, that, though,although, as, unless,till
• He was absent because he was ill.
• Strike when the iron is hot.

Some Conjunction Come In Pairs

Example

• He is either a begger or a theif.
• She is neither my sister nor my niece.
• Not only I like mangoes, but also apples.
• Though he is poor, yet he helps the needy.
• She is both, pretty and clever.
• Whether they bring it or not is uncertain.
• Milton was not a politician but a poet.
• No sooner did I see him than I saluted him.
• Scarely had the rain stopped when I went out.

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PREPOSITION

A preposition is a word placed before a Noun or Pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.

Example

• The clock is on the wall.
• The cow is grazing in the field.
• He is angry with you.

Sample Usage of Some Prepositions

BETWEEN and AMONG

While saying about two person or thing we use BETWEEN and while saying about more than two person or thing we use AMONG.

Example

• Two brothers shared the apple between themselves.
• I sat between Ancy and Juli.

BESIDE and BESIDES

Beside means by the side of.
Besides means in addition to.

Example

• My house is beside the river.
• He plays football besides badminton.

BY and WITH

When we say about a person who does the action we use BY.
When to say about some thing near by,or some thing along with weuse WITH.

Example

• A snake was killed by the boy.
• I am writing with my pen.

IN and AT

IN is used along with countries, placec cities .. etc.
AT is used along with names of towns, small villages .. etc.

Example

• My brother lives in America.
• The classes will begin at 10 A.M.

NOTE : Sometimes IN is also used to indicate 'Period of Time'. He came in time.

ON and UPON

When we say about some thing at rest we use ON.
When we say about some thing that is not at rest we use UPON.

Example

• The clock is on the wall.
• The tiger sprang upon a deer.

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INTERJECTION

A word which expresses a sudden feeling.

Example

• Hurrah ! We have won the match.
• Alas ! she is dead.
• Oh ! it was horrible.

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20 Grammar Rules

Here are 20 simple rules and tips to help you avoid mistakes in English grammar. For more comprehensive rules please look under the appropriate topic (part of speech etc) on our grammarand other pages.

1. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period/full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark. see Punctuation

• The fat cat sat on the mat.
• Where do you live?
• My dog is very clever!

2. The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject-Verb-Object. (Negative and question sentences may have a different order.)

• John loves Mary.
• They were driving their car to Bangkok.

3. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object is optional. Note that an imperative sentence may have a verb only, but the subject is understood.

• John teaches.
• John teaches English.
• Stop! (i.e. You stop!)

4. The subject and verb must agree in number, that is a singular subject needs a singular verb and a plural subject needs a plural verb.

• John works in London.
• That monk eats once a day.
• John and Mary work in London.
• Most people eat three meals a day.

5. When two singular subjects are connected by or, use a singular verb. The same is true for either/or and neither/nor.

• John or Mary is coming tonight.
• Either coffee or tea is fine.
• Neither John nor Mary waslate.

6. Adjectives usually come before a noun (except when a verb separates the adjective from the noun).

• I have a big dog.
• She married a handsome Italian man.
• (Her husband is rich.)

7. When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion-adjective + fact-adjective + noun. (There are some additional rules for the order of fact adjectives.)

• I saw a nice French table.
• That was an interesting Shakespearian play.

8. Treat collective nouns (e.g. committee, company, board of directors) as singular OR plural. In BrE a collective noun is usually treated as plural, needing a plural verb and pronoun. In AmE a collective noun is often treated as singular, needing a singular verb and pronoun.

• The committee are having sandwiches for lunch. Then they will go to London. (typically BrE)
• The BBC have changed theirlogo. (typically BrE)
• My family likes going to the zoo. (typically AmE)
• CNN has changed its logo. (typically AmE)

9. The words its and it's are two different words with different meanings.

• The dog has hurt its leg.
• He says it's two o'clock.

10. The words your and you're are two different words with different meanings.

• Here is your coffee.
• You're looking good.

11. The words there, their and they're are three different words with different meanings.

• There was nobody at the party.
• I saw their new car.
• Do you think they're happy?

12. The contraction he's can mean he is OR he has. Similarly, she's can mean she is OR she has, and it's can mean it is OR it has, and John's can mean John isOR John has.

• He is working
• He has finished.
• She is here.
• She has left.
• John is married.
• John has divorced his wife.

13. The contraction he'd can mean he had OR he would. Similarly, they'd can mean they had OR they would.

• He had eaten when I arrived.
• He would eat more if possible.
• They had already finished.
• They would come if they could.

14. Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter. A proper noun is a "name" of something, for example Josef, Mary, Russia, China, British Broadcasting Corporation, English.

• We have written to Mary.
• Is China in Asia?
• Do you speak English?

15. Spell proper adjectives with an initial capital letter. Proper adjectives are made from proper nouns, for example Germany → German, Orwell → Orwellian, Machiavelli → Machiavellian.

• London is an English town.
• Who is the Canadian prime minister?
• Which is your favourite Shakespearian play?

16. Use the indefinite article a/anfor countable nouns in general. Use the definite article the for specific countable nouns and all uncountable nouns.

• I saw a bird and a balloon in the sky. The bird was blue and the balloon was yellow.
• He always saves some of the money that he earns.

17. Use the indefinite article awith words beginning with a consonant sound. Use the indefinite article an with words beginning with a vowel sound. see When to Say a or an

• a cat, a game of golf, a human endeavour, a Frenchman, a university (you-ni-ver-si-ty)
• an apple, an easy job, an interesting story, an old man, an umbrella, an honorable man (on-o-ra-ble)

18. Use many or few with countable nouns. Use much/a lotor little for uncountable nouns.see Quantifiers

• How many dollars do you have?
• How much money do you have?
• There are a few cars outside.
• There is little traffic on the roads.

19. To show possession (who is the owner of something) use an apostrophe + s for singular owners, and s + apostrophe for plural owners.

• The boy's dog. (one boy)
• The boys' dog. (two or more boys)

20. In general, use the active voice (Cats eat fish) in preference to the passive voice (Fish are eaten by cats).

• We use active in preference to passive.
• Active is used in preference to passive.

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T.A Chandrashekhar 6360396463

chandrashekhartalawar277@gmail.com